What are the major distinctions between self-efficacy,
self-concept and self-esteem? How do these components of the self affect
people's interaction with others?
Discussions surrounding the self have held the interest
of sociologists and psychologists alike for decades. In modern times, research
regarding the components of the self, inclusive of the self-concept, self-esteem and
self-efficacy, has been deemed
essential to understanding and defining the "self".
In as much as there is much attention focused on the self
and it's components, there remains considerable confusion about the self and self-concept as well as self-esteem
and self-efficacy. The major problem appears to be the
inability to separate and view one concept as different from the others.
It is impossible to consider the aforementioned aspects
of the self without recognizing how closely they relate to each other. The similarities between these three (3)
components of the self however, are not the main focus of this paper. Instead, it seeks to outline several
possible meanings of self-concept, self-esteem and self-efficacy and the way in
which each has been understood within a social context, so as to accurately
grasp the significant ways in which they differ. Further, attention will be given to the impact of these elements
of self on social relationships.
If one considers the history of thought on the
"self" prior to the seventeenth (17th) century it is easy to be
surprised at how far understanding of the "self" has come. Far from the idea of the self as a "non
physical incumbent of a physical body"(Burns, 1979 p. 188), present day
understandings mirror the notions developed by Locke (1960) and Hume
(1928). They propose that human beings
have the power to think intelligently and to reason and reflect on themselves
(Burns, 1979).
That truth is the foundation upon which the 'self-concept' may be understood. Man must "stand outside himself" in order to formulate thoughts and feelings about who he is. These thoughts and feelings about his 'self' define his self-concept (Rosenberg, 1979). "It is an organised collection of beliefs and self-perceptions about oneself" (Baron & Byrne, 2000, p. 160).
There are three elements that make up the self-concept
namely: social identity elements, disposition and physical
characteristics. Social identity
elements concern the ways in which we as humans are assigned labels and
classified based on "socially defined categories" which include race,
religion, legal status, name, age and such the like. The disposition elements has to do with the tendencies or
attributes which the individual views himself as possessing, and may include
his abilities, values as well as specific habits or act (Rosenburg, 1979). Lastly, physical characteristics refer to
the human body and way in which it appears to the individual in his mind (as
cited in Schilder, 1968, p. 107).
Particularly noteworthy is the idea of "possible
selves", that is future self-concepts, what a person may and will
become. The notion is plausible since
we do grow and change as the years pass and seldom remain exactly the
same. With the existence of a
"clear image of future selves" problems may arise in our interactions
with others as they see only what is presently before them (Baron & Byrne,
2000). A further challenge occurs when
only a limited number of " possible selves" can be discerned. Individuals with this challenge often
respond negatively to criticism and are often devastated by disappointment.
While the self-concept can be viewed as the "
'cognitive part of the self", Self-esteem may be seen as the
"affective portion of the self" (Hamachek, 1978). Randall E. Osborne (1993a) provides a lucid
definition: "a relatively permanent positive or negative feeling about
self that may become more or less positive or negative as individuals encounter
and interpret successes and failures in their daily lives."
Self-esteem results from the process of self-evaluation,
which may be carried out, so as to achieve "self-assessment,
self-enhancement, or self verification (Baron & Byrne, 2000, p. 170). Self-evaluation usually involves some
reference or comparison to the ideas and or practices of others. Individuals with low self-esteem especially,
practice this form of self-evaluation (as cited in Wayment & Taylor, 1995, Journal of Personality p. 63).
Nonetheless, the effect of social comparisons is
dependent on whom the individual chooses as his or her standard for
measurement. If for example a 'downward
comparison' is made with someone worse off than the individual, then a contrast
effect occurs which serves to boost self-esteem (Crocker, 1993). Self-esteem may also be lowered if the
comparison is made with someone that we know well who has some inadequacy. An assimilation
effect occurs in this instance because on is "associated with the
inadequacy" (Baron & Byrne, 2000, p. 172). On the other hand, 'upward comparisons' may serve to lower
self-esteem levels; but once again, the effect is dependent on the group for
comparison. It is interesting to note
that humans are hardly ever affected or concerned with the achievements of
strangers but become severely affected when persons within or close social
groups demonstrate superiority (Major, Sciacchitano & Crocker, 1993).
From the foregoing one may now comprehend that "the self is what we know about
ourselves", the "self-concept
is what we think of ourselves, and the self-esteem
what we feel about ourselves" (Hamachek, 1978, p. 6). Yet, there remains one crucial element of
the self that merits our attention--Self-efficacy. Albert Bandura, (1986), considered this
aspect of the self; as part of his Social Cognitive Theory; and consequently
suggested that the term refers to an "individual's belief that he or she
possesses the skills or capabilities necessary to carry out the actions that
are required
for success in a given
situation".
The most engaging quality of efficacy is that it is a
product of learnt behaviour. An
individual must therefore use his "social, cognitive, and
behavioural" skills in an organised fashion in order to achieve
success. This requires much in the way
of 'trial and error' testing along with consistent effort. It is by way of this process that the
individual becomes aware of his propensity with regard to specific situations. Self-efficacy is a positive emotion and
persons (as a general rule) seek out opportunities to display
"self-efficacious behaviour" (Stephan & Stephan, 1990).
Now that
a close look at self-concept, self-esteem
and self-efficacy has been taken,
it becomes easier to adequately outline the important ways in which all three
(3) aspects of the self differ and
the ways in which our daily interactions are affected by each.
The self-concept is unique because unlike the others it
is virtually impossible to verify.
Since the individual can see himself in terms of "literally
thousands of characteristics" (Allport and Odbert, 1936; Gordon, 1968,
1976), a vast majority cannot be discerned by objective scientific
methods. The disposition of a person is
equally impossible to identify without the presence of any action. To describe oneself as kind or courageous
lends itself to a multiplicity of subjective meanings, many of which are
ambiguous. An example of the challenge
can be seen if one attempts to determine if an
individual is kind if he
gives away fifty dollars ($50) or one hundred dollars ($100).
An additional distinctive quality is the flexibility of
the self-concept and the fact that it
may be changed by life situations. This
flexibility lends itself to changes in perception, that is, rather how we are
perceived. In their study of
self-concept and interpersonal interactions, results from McNulty and Swann,
(1994) indicate that "self perceptions influence the other person's
perceptions, and those perceptions in turn have an effect on
self-perceptions."
In contrast, self-esteem is less fluid in its
nature. Even though a person' self
esteem can be increased temporarily by "false feedback about how well they
did on a personality test..." (Greenberg et al., 1992), self-esteem is
generally maintained at a stable level (Baron & Byrne, 2000). Self-esteem as the affective aspect of the
self is perhaps the strongest indicator of attitudes towards the self, in that
persons with high or low levels of esteem tend to openly demonstrate the
behaviours fitting for each.
An important phenomenon of self-esteem's effect on
interaction is the human tendency to associate with those who think well of us
and to avoid persons who do not. This
is reflective of the need of each individual to "sustain the desired
self-image" (Hamachek, 1978 p. 264).
Extreme cases of interpersonal selectivity are often seen in individuals
with low self-worth. "The loner
who has no friends or the suspicious soul who avoids friends who might be
"too honest" about him, both limit the possibility of feedback which
might in fact, spur them to greater insights into themselves and their
behaviour (Hamachek,
1978 p. 264). In addition, it is
important to remember that self-esteem that is low may have negative effects,
not only on our interactions, but also upon our mental and emotional health.
Self-efficacy
is another powerful aspect of the self.
It is possibly more dynamic than the other aspects discussed because it,
more so than others, determines action or inaction. Self-efficacy also determines how much effort people put into
dealing with challenges as well as their resilience in the face of
adversity. Additionally it
"influences the amount of stress and anxiety individuals experience while
engaged in a task".
Persons with a strong sense of efficacy are highly
motivated to take on challenges, seeing them as tasks to be mastered. Failure is not a deterrent, rather
commitment and determination increases with each setback. These individuals are generally a pleasure
to be around due to their positive and energetic outlook. Individuals who suffer from low
self-efficacy tend to have a negative attitude towards problems which arise,
often viewing them "tougher than they really are" (Pajares,
2001). These persons frequently
experience bouts of depression and anxiety as a result of their lack of skills,
and often avoid "interpersonal interactions" (Morris, 1985).
The close relationship between self-concept, self-esteem
and self-efficacy is unmistakable, yet noticeable distinctions are evident and
should be highlighted if one is to understand the pivotal role which the self
and by extension its components play in the outworking of roles in human
interaction.
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